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Phytoplankton and sea ice algae are traditionally considered to be the main primary producers in the Arctic Ocean. In this Perspective, we explore the importance of benthic primary producers (BPPs) encompassing microalgae, macroalgae, and seagrasses, which represent a poorly quantified source of Arctic marine primary production. Despite scarce observations, models predict that BPPs are widespread, colonizing ~3 million km²of the extensive Arctic coastal and shelf seas. Using a synthesis of published data and a novel model, we estimate that BPPs currently contribute ~77 Tg C y⁻¹of primary production to the Arctic, equivalent to ~20 to 35% of annual phytoplankton production. Macroalgae contribute ~43 Tg C y⁻¹, seagrasses contribute ~23 Tg C y⁻¹, and microalgae-dominated shelf habitats contribute ~11 to 16 Tg C y⁻¹. Since 2003, the Arctic seafloor area exposed to sunlight has increased by ~47,000 km²y⁻¹, expanding the realm of BPPs in a warming Arctic. Increased macrophyte abundance and productivity is expected along Arctic coastlines with continued ocean warming and sea ice loss. However, microalgal benthic primary production has increased in only a few shelf regions despite substantial sea ice loss over the past 20 y, as higher solar irradiance in the ice-free ocean is counterbalanced by reduced water transparency. This suggests complex impacts of climate change on Arctic light availability and marine primary production. Despite significant knowledge gaps on Arctic BPPs, their widespread presence and obvious contribution to coastal and shelf ecosystem production call for further investigation and for their inclusion in Arctic ecosystem models and carbon budgets. 

Aquatic eddy covariance (AEC) is increasingly being used to study benthic oxygen (O 2 ) flux dynamics, organic carbon cycling, and ecosystem health in marine and freshwater environments. Because it is a noninvasive technique, has a high temporal resolution (∼15 min), and integrates over a large area of the seafloor (typically 10–100 m 2 ), it has provided new insights on the functioning of aquatic ecosystems under naturally varying in situ conditions and has given us more accurate assessments of their metabolism. In this review, we summarize biogeochemical, ecological, and biological insightsgained from AEC studies of marine ecosystems. A general finding for all substrates is that benthic O 2 exchange is far more dynamic than earlier recognized, and thus accurate mean values can only be obtained from measurements that integrate over all timescales that affect the local O 2 exchange. Finally, we highlight new developments of the technique, including measurements of air–water gas exchange and long-term deployments. 

Extracellular enzyme activity is a well-established parameter for evaluating microbial biogeochemical roles in marine ecosystems. The presence and activity of extracellular enzymes in seawater provide insights into the quality and quantity of organic matter being processed by the present microorganisms. A key challenge in our understanding of these processes is to decode the extracellular enzyme repertoire and activities of natural communities at the single-cell level. Current measurements are carried out on bulk or size-fractionated samples capturing activities of mixed populations. This approach – even with size-fractionation – cannot be used to trace enzymes back to their producers, nor distinguish the active microbial members, leading to a disconnect between measured activities and the producer cells. By targeting extracellular enzymes and resolving their activities at the single-cell level, we can investigate underlying phenotypic heterogeneity among clonal or closely related organisms, characterize enzyme kinetics under varying environmental conditions, and resolve spatio-temporal distribution of individual enzyme producers within natural communities. In this perspective piece, we discuss state-of-the-art technologies in the fields of microfluidic droplets and functional screening of prokaryotic cells for measuring enzyme activity in marine seawater samples, one cell at a time. We further elaborate on how this single-cell approach can be used to address research questions that cannot be answered with current methods, as pertinent to the enzymatic degradation of organic matter by marine microorganisms. 

Abstract The deepest part of the global ocean, hadal trenches, are considered to act as depocenters for organic material. Relatively high microbial activity has been demonstrated in the deepest sections of some hadal trenches, but the deposition dynamics are thought to be spatially and temporally variable. Here, we explore sediment characteristics and in-situ benthic oxygen uptake along two trenches with contrasting surface primary productivity: the Kermadec and Atacama trenches. We find that benthic oxygen consumption varies by a factor of about 10 between hadal sites but is in all cases intensified relative to adjacent abyssal plains. The benthic oxygen uptake of the two trench regions reflects the difference in surface production, whereas variations within each trench are modulated by local deposition dynamics. Respiratory activity correlates with the sedimentary inventories of organic carbon and phytodetrital material. We argue that hadal trenches represent deep sea hotspots for early diagenesis and are more diverse and dynamic environments than previously recognized. 

ABSTRACT Meiofauna, organisms smaller than 1 mm, are the most abundant and diverse invertebrates inhabiting the world's ocean floor but their contribution to benthic oxygen demand is still poorly constrained. This knowledge is crucial for understanding seabed respiration, global marine carbon, and oxygen cycles, which are relevant to all nutrient cycling and energy flows in the ecosystem. It is common to predict meiofauna respiration based on their biomass or volume, which are difficult to quantify, and thus meiofauna are rarely included in biogeochemistry studies. In addition, it is still unknown how well the generalized allometric relations describe all meiofauna respiration. Therefore, we used a novel approach specially developed for single meiofauna respiration measurements to derive the respiration rates of 10 meiofauna groups in two marine and one brackish coastal muddy environments under oxic and hypoxic conditions, representing natural sediment conditions. Our estimates suggest that large ostracods and juveniles of macrofauna (e.g., bivalves, trumpet worms, and priapulids) had the highest individual respiration rates. Meiofauna community as a whole contributed 3–33% to sediment oxygen uptake. However, the most important contributors to the overall sediment oxygen uptake were nematodes and foraminifera which had lower respiration rates but were highly abundant. Therefore, out of more than 22 meiofauna phyla, we recommend that nematode and foraminifera respiration, which contributes 3–30% (total 3–33%) to sediment oxygen uptake, should be taken into consideration in any estimations of benthic oxygen and carbon cycles. 

In this paper, we outline the need for a coordinated international effort toward the building of an open-access Global Ocean Oxygen Database and ATlas (GO 2 DAT) complying with the FAIR principles (Findable, Accessible, Interoperable, and Reusable). GO 2 DAT will combine data from the coastal and open ocean, as measured by the chemical Winkler titration method or by sensors (e.g., optodes, electrodes) from Eulerian and Lagrangian platforms (e.g., ships, moorings, profiling floats, gliders, ships of opportunities, marine mammals, cabled observatories). GO 2 DAT will further adopt a community-agreed, fully documented metadata format and a consistent quality control (QC) procedure and quality flagging (QF) system. GO 2 DAT will serve to support the development of advanced data analysis and biogeochemical models for improving our mapping, understanding and forecasting capabilities for ocean O 2 changes and deoxygenation trends. It will offer the opportunity to develop quality-controlled data synthesis products with unprecedented spatial (vertical and horizontal) and temporal (sub-seasonal to multi-decadal) resolution. These products will support model assessment, improvement and evaluation as well as the development of climate and ocean health indicators. They will further support the decision-making processes associated with the emerging blue economy, the conservation of marine resources and their associated ecosystem services and the development of management tools required by a diverse community of users (e.g., environmental agencies, aquaculture, and fishing sectors). A better knowledge base of the spatial and temporal variations of marine O 2 will improve our understanding of the ocean O 2 budget, and allow better quantification of the Earth’s carbon and heat budgets. With the ever-increasing need to protect and sustainably manage ocean services, GO 2 DAT will allow scientists to fully harness the increasing volumes of O 2 data already delivered by the expanding global ocean observing system and enable smooth incorporation of much higher quantities of data from autonomous platforms in the open ocean and coastal areas into comprehensive data products in the years to come. This paper aims at engaging the community (e.g., scientists, data managers, policy makers, service users) toward the development of GO 2 DAT within the framework of the UN Global Ocean Oxygen Decade (GOOD) program recently endorsed by IOC-UNESCO. A roadmap toward GO 2 DAT is proposed highlighting the efforts needed (e.g., in terms of human resources). 

Abstract Increasing glacial discharge can lower salinity and alter organic matter (OM) supply in fjords, but assessing the biogeochemical effects of enhanced freshwater fluxes requires understanding of microbial interactions with OM across salinity gradients. Here, we examined microbial enzymatic capabilities—in bulk waters (nonsize‐fractionated) and on particles (≥ 1.6μm)—to hydrolyze common OM constituents (peptides, glucose, polysaccharides) along a freshwater–marine continuum within Tyrolerfjord‐Young Sound. Bulk peptidase activities were up to 15‐fold higher in the fjord than in glacial rivers, whereas bulk glucosidase activities in rivers were twofold greater, despite fourfold lower cell counts. Particle‐associated glucosidase activities showed similar trends by salinity, but particle‐associated peptidase activities were up to fivefold higher—or, for several peptidases, only detectable—in the fjord. Bulk polysaccharide hydrolase activities also exhibited freshwater–marine contrasts: xylan hydrolysis rates were fivefold higher in rivers, while chondroitin hydrolysis rates were 30‐fold greater in the fjord. Contrasting enzymatic patterns paralleled variations in bacterial community structure, with most robust compositional shifts in river‐to‐fjord transitions, signifying a taxonomic and genetic basis for functional differences in freshwater and marine waters. However, distinct dissolved organic matter (DOM) pools across the salinity gradient, as well as a positive relationship between several enzymatic activities and DOM compounds, indicate that DOM supply exerts a more proximate control on microbial activities. Thus, differing microbial enzymatic capabilities, community structure, and DOM composition—interwoven with salinity and water mass origins—suggest that increased meltwater may alter OM retention and processing in fjords, changing the pool of OM supplied to coastal Arctic microbial communities.